Comparison Of Two Learning Theories Education Essay

Comparison Of Two Learning Theories Education Essay Learning is a persisting changes in performance or performance potential that result from experience and interaction with the world (Driscoll, 2000, p.3). The way we process information is as individual as our genetic makeup, but research has shown that there are many different types of learning theories used for classroom education. (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007; Weimer, 2002; Steiner, Floyd, Hewett, Lewis, Walker, 2010). The theories of behaviorist and cognitivist are important to compare because they are a part of the basic foundations in which other learning theories have been formed. In order to apply learning theories to nursing practice, the need to understand the basis of different theories is important. Theories have been researched and tested and have some importance as to how things work across different situations and circumstances. Theories can give some consistent ways of looking at classroom practice and some rational explanations for what happens within th e class. Philosophy Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. Behavior is directed by stimuli. An individual selects one response instead of another because of prior conditioning and psychological drives existing at the moment of the action (Parkay Hass, 2000). In education, this type of learning falls into the reward/punishment category. The rewards must be important to the learner in order to give the incentive to respond favorably. Cognitive science began a move from behavioristic practices which emphasized external behavior, to a concern with the internal mental processes of the mind and how they could be utilized in promoting effective learning. The models that had been developed in the behaviorist tradition were not disregarded, but instead the task analysis and learner analysis parts of the models were elaborated on. Cognitivism is based on the thought process behind the observations. Changes in behavior are detected and perceived to be an indicator of what was happening inside the mind. The new models addressed component processes of learning such as knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval as well as the incorporation and integration of new knowledge with previous information. (Saettler, 1990) Origins and Authors The foundation of Behaviorism, trace its roots to the early part of the 20th century. This was during a time when many psychologists emphasized self-analysis of mental processes (introspection) or the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud. In contrast, researchers like Ivan Pavlov, began to develop a framework which emphasized observable processes (environmental stimuli and behavioral responses). (Kentridge, 2007) Originators and important contributors to behaviorism believed that learning is confined to observational and measurable behavior. The two major schools of thought are based on ideas from Pavlov who showed classical conditioning and Skinner who believed in operant conditioning. One of the most famous experiments on classical conditioning is from Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov originally was doing an experiment regarding the role of salivation in digestion. From his observations, Pavlov noticed when his assistant brought meat into the laboratory; the dogs being used for in this experiment would automatically start to salivate. Further research into this phenomenon formed the famous Pavlovs stimulus and response experiment, known now as classic conditioning. Classic conditioning is a four-step learning procedure involving reflexes. (Fig. 1) http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html Fig. 1 Pavlovs Dog Experiment During classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning, human and animal subjects change the magnitude and timing of their conditioned response (CR), as a result of the contingency between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US). Whereas in classical conditioning, the US and the CS determine the form of the CR, in operant conditioning the strength and frequency, but not the form, of the response is independent of the US. (Schmajuk, 2007) B.F. Skinner (1974) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior. Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events. In essence, Skinner believed we are what we have been reinforced for being (Olson Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 76). Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). This theory states that when learning is rewarded, behavior is perpetuated or maintained, while punished behavior is removed. In the classic experiment of Skinner Box, a rat may receive a food reward every time he presses the bar. He presses faster and faster. (Fig 2). http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html Fig. 2 Skinners Rat Box The major techniques used in operant conditioning are: Positive reinforcement increasing a behavior by administering a reward. Negative reinforcement increasing a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when a behavior occurs Punishment decreasing a behavior by administering an aversive stimulus Extinction decreasing a behavior by not rewarding it. Albert Bandura thought Skinners theories were too simplistic although he also believed many of the psychological constructs of previous psychological thought were far too laid back, and were neither problem-solving nor action-oriented (Bandura, 1997). He believed in reciprocal determinism, that is, the world and a persons behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that ones environment causes ones behavior, Bandura, who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and ones psychological processes (ones ability to entertain images in minds and language). (Bandura, 1997) Cognitivism considers the learner as an information processor, much like that of a computer. It believes that the black box of the mind should be opened and understood. The information comes in, is processed and leads to certain outcomes. The concept believed that people are not just like rats that respond to stimuli but rather, they are rational thinking human beings that require active participation to learn. There are four major contributors to the Cognitivists theory. Howard Gardner believed that students learn in different ways. According to Gardner, we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, and the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains. (Gardner, 1991) Fig. 3 -Multiple intelligences Robert Gangne developed information processing theory identified eight levels of intellectual skills including: signal, stimulus-response, chaining, verbal association, multiple discrimination, concept formation, principle formation and problem solving. He also explained that there are five areas of learning outcomes: verbal information; intellectual skills; cognitive strategies; motor skills and attitudes. www.classweb.gmu.edu Fig. 4-Levels of Intelligence Allan Paivio discovered Dual coding theory that states people process information in two different ways; processing of images and the processing of language. Fig http://cslsrv.ice.ntnu.edu.tw/LabNews/Minutes01S/20010412joseph.htm Fig. 5- Dual Coding Theory Benjamin Bloom described six levels of learning in his model of critical thinking. These levels are also known as Blooms Txaonomy. . http://taspd.edublogs.org/2007/04/23/revised-blooms-taxonomy/ Fig. 6- Blooms Taxonomy Literature Review The two movements differ particularly in their views on behavior. Behaviorism, whose research subjects were mostly animals, views behavior as an irreducible consequence of environmental stimuli, whereas Cognitivism, whose research subjects are often humans, sees behavior as a point from which to abstract the mental processes behind the behavior. Skinners studies of operant behaviors have become very useful in the field of learning and cognition (Corey, 2009). Studies have shown that behavior can be conditioned by reinforcements, positively, which increases the probability of the behavior happening again, or negatively, which decreases the probability the behavior will happen again (Olson Hergenhahn, 2009). Skinners theories still remain in wide use, helping users understand and control behaviors in many disciplines as well as in issues ranging from advertising to parenting (Olson Hergenhahn, 2009). According to Corey (2009), the research of Kazdin (2001) and Spiegler Guevremont (2003) revealed that behavioral therapy is generally as effective as alternative therapies, and in some instances, more effective. The Cognitive Learning Theory supports the idea that learning includes different kinds of memories, motivation and thinking. One of the other important factors is that of reflection. Those that promote Cognitivsm believe that the learning process is internal and depends on memorized information from pre-existing knowledge. (Ausubel, 1974) The theory argues that the degree of which a person learns is not affected by the ability and quality of mental processing. (Craik Tulving, 1975; Craik Tulving, 1975) Cognitivism maintains that memory is stored by using a connective pattern of information that networks with other patterns by means of some type of a relationship. (Stoyanova Kommers, 2002) Use in Nursing Education Writing behavioral-based instructional objectives seems to specify clear, measurable terms to assist learners. According to Morrison (2001), behavior based objectives become the end rather than the means for instruction. Morrison continues to point out that cognitive focused instructional objectives overcome this problem by first stating a general objective to communicate the intent. Additionally, they observe that cognitive objectives are well suited for describing higher levels of learning. (Morrison et al., 2001, p. 97) In behaviorism, the learner is actively involved in learning, practicing, and demonstrating new behaviors and is extremely dependent on receiving feedback from the educator. The educator is responsible for identifying behavioral outcomes, controlling the environment, and providing feedback. Current use of behaviorism in education is most often associated with education and training (Merriam et al., 2007). Behaviorism does well in education because it promotes good behavior and recognizes that unwanted behavior has consequences. Students learn by observing and interpreting the behavior, and associated consequences, of others in a process termed vicarious reinforcement or modeling (Bandura, 1977). Learning by modeling involves a complex process of interpreting, coding, and retaining the information for future application, then engaging in the modeled behavior (Bandura, 1969). Cognitivists have influenced educational strategies by including prior knowledge in influencing how new information is digested. Cognitive learning theorists believe that learning is an internal process in which information is integrated or internalized into ones cognitive or intellectual structure. Learning occurs through internal processing of information. From the cognitive viewpoint, how new information is presented is important. In the first or cognitive phase of learning, the student learns the overall picture of what the task is and the sequences involved. In the second, or fixation learning phase, the learner begins to gain skill in performing the task. In the last phase of learning, the automatic phase, the student gains increasing confidence and competence in performing the task. (Elias et al., 1984) Personal Use I believe that we all use a part of the behaviorists way of learning, to some extent. We all like to be awarded for the work or behavior that we have accomplished. We know there are repercussions and consequences for not adhering to the rules. Our behaviors represent how we are perceived by others in society. The determination of how others behave is by the use of checks and balances of stimuli and response. The way we act and/or behave, teaches people how to respond to us. I believe that I am motivated to learn and acquire more knowledge. The ability to mentally organize, rehearse and comprehend new learning materials is one I strive to obtain. The motivation that has driven me to succeed in both by personal and professional lives has been founded on realistic and challenging goals. Conclusion There are many different ways of learning and teaching. Two of the earliest methods of learning can still utilized in todays classroom. The foundation of theories helps us as a framework to base our learning and teaching upon. We can use positive and negative reinforcement as well as modeling to teach our students how to absorb and maintain new materials. Behaviorism is a teacher based concept full of structure and rules. Examples are class lectures, note taking and role modeling. Cognitivist used a student based concept in which students can find out information by themselves by using case studies, research and discussions. These two types of learning theories can help to shape our future generations.

The Problem of Poverty: Welfare in America Essays -- Poverty Essays

The Problem of Poverty: Welfare in America For centuries, nations, cities, and individual families have dealt with the problem of poverty; how to remedy current situations and how to prevent future ones. For most of history, there have been no government controlled poverty assistance programs. The poor simply relied on the goodness of their families or, if they did not have a family, on the generosity of the public at large. In the United States, this situation changed in 1935 with the passage of the Social Security Act. The Social Security Act has seen many successes, but it also faces many critiques of its structure and function. In the past, most governments did little to actively aid their poor population. This duty was understood to fall on the families of the poor individuals, charity groups, and generous individuals. Some governments aided their needy in indirect ways. One of the first government-mediated assistance programs was passed by the English Parliament in 1601 as the Act for the Relief of the Poor. This act s et up local 'parishes' that were responsible for taking care of the poor in their own district. However, the government provided no funds to facilitate this program?the parishes were responsible for levying and collecting taxes to finance their programs. Though it would be considered a very primitive form of welfare by today?s standards, it was a large step toward government-mediated welfare compared to the English system 250 years before that. In 1349, Parliament forbade charity on the grounds that it might encourage laziness. Since then, public attitudes have changed about the responsibility of the citizens and the government to provide for the assistance of the needy. Limited federal assistance was given to war veterans and their families beginning during the Civil War, but large scale assistance to the general needy community was not available for almost 75 more years (Komisar 48). A large contribution toward the assistance of the poor in the United States came during the Progre ssive movement around the turn of the century. Activist groups championed not only workers rights in the form of unions, but also the right of every citizen to have access to decent living conditions (Komisar 67). The Progressive movement slackened during the prosperous ?20s, but the social welfare issue was forcefully placed back into the public con... ...banks could meet the needs of the increased number of people who seek their services. Although it is probably impossible to achieve complete freedom from poverty, society need not sit idly by in the face of such a monumental challenge. Indeed, it is the public duty of each individual to aid in the improvement of the lives of poor persons around the nation and around the world. Large-scale, complex systems such as the one now in place in America, only serve to create an inefficient, costly effort that could be achieved with less manpower and fewer dollars. Government oversight and subsidizing of private contributions toward the elimination of poverty is a far more efficient, adaptive, and economical way of working toward the eradication of the problem of poverty. Bibliography Garfinkel, Irwin. ?Welfare?, World Book Encyclopedia, World Book Inc., New York, Vol 21, pp. 191-193, Â ©1988. Komisar, Lucy. Down and Out in the USA: A History of Public Welfare. Rev. ed. Watts, Chicago, Â ©1977. Patterson, James. America?s Struggle Against Poverty, 1900-1980., Harvard Press, Boston, Â ©1981. Segalman, Ralph. Poverty in America: The Welfare Dilemma, Greenwood, Los Angeles, Â ©1981

The Wish English

A young boy, full of imagination and new exciting adventures, is the protagonist of the story â€Å"The Wish. † This story was written by the author Roald Dahl, a well-known author that has also written the stories, â€Å"The BFG†, â€Å"Matilda† and, â€Å"James and the Giant Peach,† Children have minds packed with creativity, everything is an adventure. For this young boy, he becomes wildly engulfed in his imagination each day. Some characteristics of the boy include that he is incredibly imaginative, and he has a lot of ambition. What else can be said to be a characteristic of the boy is that can seem to be foolish, and he also is very lonely.On this particular day of adventures, the boy becomes quite lost in his creativity. The result of this is that his new quest turns into a dire situation of getting a puppy, or falling into the depths of the red, black, and yellow carpet. The imagination of the boy is one of his key characteristics. He even makes pi cking a scab into a special exciting challenge. â€Å"A scab was always a fascinating thing; it presented a special challenge he was never able to resist. † After picking the scab he continues with another adventure that includes the colorful carpet.I believe that imagination is a great thing to have in life, but to much can have many consequences. Something continuously expressed by the boy are the lines, â€Å"I must† and, â€Å"I will. † This shows that he is extremely ambitious and motivated. An example of this would be, â€Å"What I must do is this: I must walk all the way along it to the front door without touching them. † Of course, with such an imaginative mind, this boy seems slightly foolish. As he talks to the carpet and holds his breath with each step, the usual person would probably think that this child is making a fool of himself.He yelled at the carpet with enthusiasm, â€Å"I’m not touching you! You mustn’t bite me! You kno w, I’m not touching you! Another characterization of the boy would be that he seems lonely. The boy thought, â€Å"For someone who had only yesterday triumphantly traveled the whole length of the brick path from the stables to the summerhouse without touching the cracks, this carpet thing should not be too difficult. † This thought shows that the boy is having adventures like this everyday; he doesn’t have another child or sibling to play with. The boy is also wishing that he would be given a puppy for his birthday, maybe this is because of his loneliness.He just wishes for some company. With such characteristics in a young boy, he seems like quite the interesting kid. He is described greatly between the lines of the short story. The boy doesn’t change throughout the adventure, he is mostly unaffected by the events. Although I am not sure about what had happened to this young boy and the carpet, I am wishing the story had presented more towards the conclu sion. Not only am I wanting more and constantly wondering what actually happened to the boy, but also I’m glad the story had ended the way it did.

A Visit to the Notre Dame Cathedral - 586 Words

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